Arguments of Political Representation in the US

Arguments of Political Representation in the US â€Å"The vile state governments are sources of pollution which will contaminate the American name for ages†¦. Smite them,† Henry Knox urged Rufus King sitting in the Philadelphia Convention, â€Å"smite them, in the name of God and the people.†[1] The jostling of various interest groups, the self promoting ambitions of lawmaking, the persistent adhering to popular demands, these â€Å"excesses of democracy†[2] instigated the meeting at Annapolis, and consequently the convening of delegates in Philadelphia. It could be reasonably argued that the limitations of the Articles of Confederation in yielding Congress the power to raise revenue, to regulate trade, to pay of its debts, and to act successfully in international affairs was the primary reasoning for convening. But, there was more to it than the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. It was the unwillingness of the legislatures to do â€Å"justice,† and this matter of justice said Washington, is the origin of the evils we now feel.†[3] According to Madison, the matter of justice â€Å"contributed more to that uneasiness which produced the convention and prepared the public mind for general reform than those which occurred to our national character and interest from the inadequacy of the Confederation to its immediate object.†[4] It was this matter of â€Å"justice† that facilitated the uneasiness which generated the convention and organized the public for change more than the inadequacy of the Articles of Confederation. The convention brought together men whose discussions put in place an establishment of an unusually influential remote national government the like of which was never seen before. It began with the conception of a classical tradition of civic humanism and its patrician code of disinterested public leadership a complete turnaround from the popular individualistic and acquisitive era of the early 1780s. Ideally, arguments about justice between democratic legislators such as Findley who were considered by the likes of Madison as â€Å"men of factious tempers† and â€Å"of local prejudices† and â€Å"advocates and parties to the causes which they determine,†[5] that dominated the convention at Philadelphia and consequently the creation of the constitution. Eventually, what prevailed was disinterested patriotism and as the debates continued the arguments were written down as a basic deed that defined and restrict government. The constitution was not to become part of government,[6] but separate and higher to all actions of government and a precursor of government. This constitution became the pronouncement of the people themselves.[7] Their arguments were their experiences the resistance between supremacy and liberty and the interference of imperial sanctions they had defended against. Therefore, they argued against â€Å"corruption† that system they had observed of the British a system where ministers of the Crown are at the same time members of Parliament. The linkage David Hume called â€Å"influence† which they determinedly destroyed in 1776.[8] They argued vehemently against â€Å"virtual† representation; the British idea that the process of election was secondary to representation and therefore taxation without representation is justified. They were aware that it was this challenge that ushered in their revolution. They were cognizant at the convention that if citizens were to be correctly represented in a legislature â€Å"not only did the people have to vote directly for the members of the legislature, but they also had to be represented by members whose numbers were proportionate to the size of the population they spoke for.†[9] They were unrelenting on the idea that actual representation made the practice of election not secondary but indispensable to representation and that chosen representatives â€Å"not only had to be for the people they also had to be of the people.[10] Implicit in the idea also was the belief an underlying thought that no politician no matter the number of votes they attained could completely represent the citizens. Therefore, citizens could be represented in diverse ways and in varieties of organizations.[11] The debate was unrelenting in asserting that sovereignty stayed with the people themselves. The people, they insisted must never disappear by the process of representation which meant â€Å"all public officials became delegated and mistrusted agents of the people, temporarily holding bits and pieces of the people’s power out so to speak on always recallable loan.†[12] This accepted wisdom of thinking of people in this amazing way endured at the convention and founders were able to formulate federalism, the extraordinary sharing of power between central and local governments that establish two governing bodies ruling over the same terrain, the Congress and the separate legislatures. They were firm on the concept of sovereignty so much so that a suggestion for an inclusion of a Bill of Rights,[13] was unanimously turned down by delegates. A conviction that unlike England where the King’s privilege was sacrosanct, in America all power existed in the people who with their ballots apportioned fragments of it to their representatives, therefore, the Bill of Rights was unnecessary. What made these arguments sustainable was that it was written down. What made it exceptional in the history of mankind, it [the deed] was placed before the people for ratification and as each state constitutional convention ratified the deed the people themselves became the actual power. The consent of the people made the constitution a primary law invulnerable from legislative infringement. It gave judges the ability to oblige limits on what Congress enacts as law and hence a precursor of Judicial reviews.[14] Thus, the radicalism of the founders infused with Lockean beliefs ushered in a new republic. A government derived from the people. This logic of republican equality brought ordinary people into the political process and restricted the prospect of preferment[15] in public life. These ideologies that gave birth to a nation have traversed many roads and has sustained. Very many writers have investigated the idea that sustained America and reached different conclusions. Lakoff though takes a new approach. He looks at America from the background of a family. He suggested a family has two types of orientation, the Strict Father Orientation and Nurturent Parent orientation. The application of each, he relates to two ideologies; conservatism and Liberalism. With these two models he created two world views. He posits that it is through the morals of this two world views America operates politically, socially and policy wise. In essence he sees the nation metaphorically as a family. He believes that political and moral ideas develop systematic ways from our models of ideal families. He claimed that our political system is governed by two world views, the strict father and the nurturant parent. Both internalized by constituents in terms of metaphorical concepts and as a consequence two ideologies, conservatism and liberalism. Linking morality to politics he posited that the language of framing is what set the two ideologies apart. That is, essentially, it is not what you say, but how you say it. [1] Knox quoted in William Winslow Crosskey and William Jeffery Jr., Politics and the Constitution in the History of the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), III, 420, 421. [2] Benjamin Rush to Jeremy Belknap, May 6, 1788 in Butterfield, ed., Letters of Rush, I, 461; Elbridge Gerry, in Max Farrand, ed., The Records of the Federal Convention of 1778 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1911, rev. ed., 1937), I, 48. [3] George Washington to John Jay, May 18, 1776, in Fitzpatrick, ed., Writings of Washington, XVIII, 432. [4] James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, October 24, 1788, in Boyd et al., eds., Papers of Jefferson, XII, 276. [5] Cooke, ed., The Federalist No. 10; [William Findley], A Review of the Revenue System Adopted at the First Congress under the Federal Constitution†¦ (Philadelphia: Bailey, 1794), 117. [6] Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man [7] James Wilson, Wilson’s declaration at the Philadelphia Convention of 1787. [8] United States Constitution, Article 1, Secti.on 6, Clause 2 [9] Gordon S. Wood, The Idea of America: Reflections on the Birth of the United States (New York: Penguin Books, 2012)., p. 182. [10] Ibid., p. 183. [11] Ibid., p. 183. [12] Ibid., p. 184. [13] George Mason withheld his signature to the constitution on account of this. [14] James Iredell, Calder v. Bull, 3 U.S. (Dall.) 386, 1 L. Ed. 648 (1798) which became the Principle of Judicial Review. [15] Clifford K. Shipton, â€Å"Jonathan Trumbull,† in Sibley’s Harvard Graduates: Biographies of Those Who Attended Harvard College (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1951), 8: 269.

Research Paper †Stop Smoking Essay

Thousands of people worldwide indicate that smoking is addictive and harmful to health, scientific studies, research and other institutional bodies such as the World Health Organization, would support this thesis. Tobacco is responsible for nearly 1 in 3 deaths from cancer, thousands of people die of lung cancer and about 87% of these lung cancer deaths will be due to smoking. This habit not only increases the risk of lung cancer, but also is a factor in various cancers as of: mouth, larynx, pharynx, esophagus, kidney and stomach. It also generates other risks such as heart disease, stroke and respiratory problems. According to the American Lung Association: â€Å"About 8. 6 million people in the U. S. have at least one serious illness caused by smoking†. This means that for every person who dies of a smoking-related disease, there are 20 more people who suffer from at least one serious illness associated with smoking. Likewise, it is well known that the consumption of tobacco also cause bad breath, skin unsightly, smelly clothes and hair among other things that harm our health significantly. We all have the right to do as we please but smoking poisons not only the one who has this bad habit, it also does it to all those who surround him. As Paul Slovic says in his book: Smoking: Risk, Perception & Policy (2001) â€Å"In Addition to the risk to the smoker, smoking endangers the health of those who are exposed to secondhand smoke. † Being exposed to secondhand smoke it is sometimes harmful that even smoking a cigarette, snuff smoke contains 4000 chemicals and 60 of these are carcinogenic it also produce various types of cancer. The polluted air snuff smoke also causes heart disease and many serious respiratory diseases in children and adults that can cause death. An economic impact on the pockets of those who smoke is another reason that makes it so harmful; the cost of smoking is an important part of the monthly budget in these people. The cost of lighting a cigarette can go beyond the risk of getting cancer. If parameter is taken as the price of a pack of Marlboro cigarettes Box of 20 ($ 6. 50), a person who smokes a pack a day spends about $ 45. 50 per week and about $ 2,180 a year. If they instead of smoking decide to invest that amount each year, they will probably build an interesting amount of money for a retirement plan. But that’s not all. The annual bill for smokers also grows in other areas such as life insurance and home, medications, cleaning costs, etc. Many insurers charge an extra premium on their life insurance for people who smoke more than 20 cigarettes per day. The values of these extra premiums vary according to age, sex and in some cases the type of snuff which they use (cigarette, pipe, cigar), but may be increased 30% if you are young and up to 70% for an adult. In the U. S. , the difference can be tripled. Some home insurance discriminate between smokers and nonsmokers, increasing the risk of fire, others do not cover fire accidents caused by smoking. An article posted in the New York Times edition of August 2013, says that â€Å"A smoker costs a private employer in the United States an extra $5,816 per year compared with a nonsmoker† The environment is the most suffering passive smoking. Snuff production causes pollution of natural resources, loss of biodiversity, forest fires, deforestation, increasing climate change and urban poor air quality. No other consumer product causes as much damage from cultivation, production, use and disposal as snuff. Butts filters are made of cellulose acetate, a non-biodegradable pollutant which can take effect on the environment more than 25 years to decompose. In addition to the filter, the butt can keep toxic substances that make up the cigarette. Nicotine and tar of a single cigarette can contaminate up to 50 liters of water. According to a report from the Florida State University (FSU), tobacco companies will add chemicals to cigarettes for smokers to not have to turn them on steadily. In the U. S, the leading cause of home fires is a lit cigarette unattended. FSU’s report also indicates that almost half of the litter on the streets is made up of cigarette butts. These residues can reach rivers, lakes and oceans and being ingested by birds, fish and other animals that may die not being able to digest. In Texas each year more than 1 billion pieces of litter will accumulate on Texas highways. Of those, 13 percent are cigarette butts. That means 130 million butts will be tossed out in Texas alone this year (Texas Department of Transportation). Smoking is a serious social problem as the damage that occurs not only in people who consume it but also with whom they live. It is amazing how a small cigar, can virtually dominate the lives of millions of people in the world. Only those who have tried to quit smoking know how difficult it is and how much it costs. By force of will and perseverance of the patient, are now added new drugs that make their contribution in the fight against cigarette addiction. Although it is legal and socially acceptable use, nicotine is a drug that affects us and creates dependency or addiction that makes organic conditions diminish the quality of life. It is our choice to be healthy, prevent disease, save money, and concern about the environment and most important thing our lives. Think of banishing an addiction so ingrained in our society is at the moment impossible; stay motionless is selfish and almost criminal. Smokers and nonsmokers should unite in a common goal: that our children will never become victims of an addiction as damaging. Works Cited 1. -The New York Times (August 2013) Article taken from: http://well. blogs. nytimes. com/2013/08/07/the-cost-of-a-smoker-5816/? _r=0 2. – American Lung Association http://www. lung. org/stop-smoking/about-smoking/facts-figures/general-smoking-facts. html 3. – Slovic, Paul. (2001). Smoking: Risk, Perception & Policy (Google Books – Digital Edition) 4. – Texas Department of Transportation Information http://www. cigarettelitter. org/

Describe Your Own Leadership Style Essay

Jim Collins and a group of 22 research associates conducted a five-year research project searching an answer on the question ‘how a company from merely good can be transformed to great one’ and identified that behind this transformation lies a level 5 leader. Level 5 leadership refers to the highest level in a hierarchy of manager’s capabilities. A level 5 leader transforms the organisation into a great institution through a paradoxical combination of personal humility plus professional will. Beneath Level 5 leaders, lie four other layers, each one appropriate in its own right but none with the power of Level 5. Level 1 leader is a high capable individual who plays an important role in the success of his organisation through his talent, knowledge, skills and good work habits. A level 2 leader is a contributing team member who is very good with his team members and ensures that his team meets its assigned objectives and fulfils the core purpose. A level 3 leader is a competent manager who is skilled at organising people and resources towards the effective and efficient pursuit of predetermined objectives. A level 4 leader is an effective leader. He sets high-level performance standards. He is remarkable at motivating his people and leading them towards realising his vision of the organisation. (Appendix 1, p. 11 summarises all levels of Collins’ Leadership Hierarchy) (Collins, J. (2005). Level 5 Leadership: The Triumph of Humility and Fierce Resolve, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 83. No. 7, p. 136-146) The purpose of this assignment is to conduct an evaluation of my own style of leadership within the organisation in which I work by using the above hierarchy as a frame of reference. In order to produce a thorough assessment on both my style and the usefulness of Collin’s model, a range of other theories and concepts must be taken into consideration. However, before proceeding to the analysis and evaluation, it would be helpful first to know the position I hold as well as its responsibilities within the organisation. A Brand Manager, member of the Marketing Department, is responsible for the planning, development and implementation of the Company’s marketing activities, among others: Launching of new products, market research studies, promotional activities/materials, to organize and execute the raining programs for the Sales Force. In order to become an efficient and effective Brand manager, the company is requiring knowledge (good academic background), experience and managerial skills including: Strategic and analytic capabilities, entrepreneurial spirit, team player, and flexibility and strong skills in communication and leadership. The Idea of Leadership It is most likely to find a topic more important to business success today than leadership. Leadership is defined as the ability to influence people toward the achievement of goals. Leadership occurs among people, involves the use of influence and it is used to attain goals. Leaders are expected to persuade or inspire people, produce cooperative efforts and pursue goals. Leadership is different from management, though the two are easily confused. One may be a leader without being a manager and many managers cannot ‘lead a squad of seven- years –olds to the ice cream counter’ according to Gardner (1989). Gardner believes that there are several dimensions for distinguishing leadership from management. Leaders think long-term, look outside as well as inside and influence others regardless the position that they possess. In order to understand the idea of Leadership and which are the characteristics a leader usually has, studies and research have been conducted and several approaches to leadership styles as well as theories are arose. Some of them are going to be related to Collin’s Level 5 leadership hierarchy as well as to my own style of leadership. (Daft R. L. , Management, ch. 16, Leadership in Organisations , p. 514-515) Level 1 Leader & The Leadership Traits Approach Leadership trait approach is the oldest approach to the study of leadership. From this approach occurs that there are certain qualities in some people that define them as leaders or potential leaders. Traits therefore are the distinguishing personal characteristics such as intelligence, values and appearance. Leaders extend their power and use their abilities to influence events. Effective leaders are usually more intelligent, more dependable, responsible and more active. They usually ask for more information and give out more information. However, the ppropriateness of a trait or a set of traits depends on the leadership situation. The same traits do not apply to every organisation or situation. (Appendix 2, p. 11 summarises the physical, social and personal leadership characteristics) On the contrary, Collin’s Hierarchy is consisted of several characteristics/ capabilities that most can be found also in the leadership trait approach such as knowledge, achievement to drive and working effectively with others in a group setting. However, two characteristics that are of great importance are not included in it. There are the most important ones and are a necessary requirement for transforming an organisation from good to great, humility and professional will. (Diploma in Management, Module book 1, section 6, Teams in Management, p. 6. 16) However, in order to understand in what extent these two concepts can be correlated, we can use ourselves as an example. For instance, my position requires being a highly capable individual (Collin’s Hierarchy Level 1). How can I accomplish this requirement? By demonstrating many of the personal traits such as intelligence, knowledge, judgement and cognitive ability. For instance, the products that I handle have intense competition. Good knowledge of the market as well as intelligent moves made them to differentiate from competition. The creation of a guideline for treatment at home as well as the delivery of the products at home gave a benefit to them. As a result, Doctors preferred to prescribe these products for long term use and hade great impact on the company’s name and reliability. When we speak of leadership, either we refer to the qualities/ competencies of an individual or we can refer to a function of organisation. The ‘trait’ theory of leadership- the traditional or popular management view of leadership- focuses on the concept that leadership is a quality or set of qualities particular to an individual. On the contrary, the group dynamics theory sees leadership as a function of organisation. Level 2 Leader & Task versus people perspective styles Task versus people perspective styles of leadership do not take into consideration the organisation as a whole. They focus on teams. Every group of people has a task to accomplish. However, since groups are composed of people, several needs arise from them. According to the group dynamics theory of leadership, the person who adequately fulfils the needs that the group perceive to be the most important could be considered as an effective leader. A working team need to fulfil two functions. First, its formal tasks must be fulfilled. In order this to be accomplished; a set of competencies must be evolved. Technical knowledge, innovation and sense of achievement are related with the instrumental need to perform the tasks. Second, needs for affiliation, interaction and mutual support are usually observed within a team. Such needs are called expressive needs. The person who becomes leader must facilitate the satisfaction of some of the teams’ needs. This leader emerges to the group because he is the best able to help the group survive and succeed. ) (Master in Business Administration, Module book 3, section 1 The Theory of Leadership, p. 1. 7-1-11) According to Collin’s leadership hierarchy, the leader that is described in the group dynamics approach could be characterised as a level 2 leader. A contributing team member who is very good with his team members and ensures that his team meets its assigned objectives and fulfils the core purpose. Both group dynamics approach and Collins hierarchy are useful in helping us to see how leaders may relate to team members and to situations. (Collins, J. , (2005). Level 5 Leadership: The Triumph of Humility and Fierce Resolve, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 83. No. 7, p. 136-146) As a Brand Manager, one of my responsibilities to support our sales team by providing them with moderate amounts of detail and focus on why it is important for the team members to complete our objectives. However, I believe that co-owning the objective/action plan with team members and asking team members ideas as well as offering my own ideas is more efficient and can lead us easier to our goals. Besides, It is better to have, for instance, five people to think rather than one. Therefore, I strongly believe that teamwork can lead to better results. Level 3 Leader & The Contingency Theory According to contingency models, leadership depends as much on the situation of the group as on the leader himself or herself. Thus, we have a choice; either the leader can fit to the situation or change effectively the situation to fit the leader. As we can understand, leadership is different for first-level supervisors than for chief executives and the kind of leadership needed for skilled and highly motivated followers may not work for followers who are alienated and untrained. According to Fiedler, contingency model divides the leadership situation into three variables. In order to determine the most effective leadership style, we must consider the inter-relationship of the three contingencies: leader – member relations, task- structure and position power. 1. Leader – member relations, where mutual trust, respect and open communication exist and can be consider as advantageous. This means that tasks are clear and structured and members are aware of the power the leader holds. On the other hand, where there is little or no trust, respect of communication, then the relationship can be characterised as disadvantageous (control over the situation is needed and a focus on a task will not detract from the leaders/ team relationship because this is not essential to start with. 2.  Task- structure, when work is highly structured and easy to know when somebody has not complied with an instruction and it is easy to impose sanctions. However, when work is unstructured, leaders cannot enforce compliance with external controls and therefore, the leader has much less power than when work is highly structured. 3. Position power, is the extent to which a leader has formal authority over the followers. When position power is high then the leader has the power to plan and direct the work of followers, evaluate it and accordingly reward or punish it. On the other hand, when position power is low, the leader has little authority over followers. (Appendix 3, p. 11 presents Fiedler’s examination on how Leader Style fits the situation) Finally, according to Fiedler, task-oriented leaders tend to be more effective in situations that are either highly advantageous or highly disadvantageous to them and that relationship-oriented leaders tend to be more effective in situations that are moderately advantageous to them. (Bolman,L. G. , Terrence,D. E. , Reframing Organisations, Ch. , Reframing Leadership, p. 342-344) According to Collin, a level 3 leader is a competent manager who is skilled at organising people and resources towards the effective and efficient pursuit of predetermined objectives. However, as it is showed above, an efficient leader must differ from situation to situation or from team to team, according to its special characteristics. Analysing a level 3 leader in correlation with Contingency theory, we understand tha t a level 3 leader should consider both leader –member relations and tasks. Predetermined objectives cannot be achieved, if mutual trust, respect and open communication do not exist in a team and if tasks are not highly structured and followers do not know precisely their responsibilities. However, we must never ignore the extent to which a leader has formal authority over the followers. (Collins, J. , (2005). Level 5 Leadership: The Triumph of Humility and Fierce Resolve, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 83. No. 7, p. 136-146) For instance, according to my position, my everyday contact is with the sales team. According to my opinion, it is clear that trust, respect as well as open communication and mutual understanding exist within our team. One of the responsibilities of my position is to organise in some extent, their work by indicating them what is our goal and how we can reach it, with what tools and where we want to focus. Another one is to monitor our products sales and ask questions whenever I believe it is necessary. However, my position power is not as high as to evaluate them and reward or punish them accordingly.

Book Review Why Read Marx Today - 759 Words

Book Review: Why Read Marx Today? (Jonathan Wolff; Oxford University Press; 2002) In this book, Wolff (UCL professor, philosopher, and columnist for the Guardian) tackles the immense task of analysing the validity and modern significance of Karl Marx and his teachings. As Wolff quickly points out in his introductory paragraphs, surely the fall of the Berlin Wall - along with the collapse of the so-called â€Å"‘Evil Empire’† (1) (the Soviet Union) - should have rendered the Marxist theorists beaten and humiliated, their ideologies proven wrong and obsolete. Yet, despite this, Wolff emphasises that Marx’s criticisms of late nineteenth-century economics and society still â€Å"have enormous relevance even in the twenty-first century† (3). Regardless of what his character may have been like, Marx is the thinker at the very forefront of the critique of capitalism. Indeed, it could even be argued that communist and Marxist movements are becoming more popular of late, triggered by the recent credit crunch crisis, and the drastic austerity measures taken by Western countries in order to save themselves from the crippling debt accumulated in the last few decades. These significant issues within modern capitalist societies highlight the relevance of Marx’s discussion. Wolff begins his analysis of Marx with a brief, yet evaluative summary of Marx’s life, which, according to Wolff, â€Å"revolved around his scholarly work, and his involvement with political intrigue† (7). Here, Wolff isShow MoreRelatedA Marxist Approach Of Orwell s 1984 Essay7236 Words   |  29 Pagesconstantly be on the brink of destruction. Between the World Wars, the rise of totalitarianism and fascism, society was not in the most stable position. 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